I wrote this paper for one of my classes this semester. It was worth 40% of my grade in that class. The class' purpose was to examine the literature, issues, and perspectives of transgender people of color. It was the hardest class of my graduate career. The instructor wanted it to be "less formal than academic" and to use the "style of your discipline" (which for me is APA.)
Old Main, PSU, a few weeks ago
Still, it isn't the easiest read. It's still an academic paper, after all. However its topic is Violence against transgender people. So here it is, warts and all, exactly as I submitted it.
Oh, It got an A-.
************************************************************************
Seminar
paper: Trans of Color Critique
Sophie
Kandler
Pennsylvania
State University
WMST
597
Introduction
“There
is anecdotal evidence to suggest that anti-Trans sentiments are pervasive in
Western culture.” (Hill, D. B., &
Willoughby, B. L., 2005, p. 531.) My
area of research analyzes cisgender (cis) and transgender relations,
specifically why do cis men hate transgender women to the point where the men
murder them. According
to research, the perpetrators are always male.
(Jauk, 2013, p.815.)(Stoltzer, 2009, p.176.) I will approach this from an Adult Education
perspective, as I believe that education is the only way that transgender (Trans)
people can overcome the waves of hate and violence arrayed against them. I narrowed the scope of my research to
transfeminine people to make the study more manageable.
This
paper will examine physical and sexual violence on transgender people. Verbal
harassment is so common that many transgender people don’t even consider it as
violence. (Dauk, 2013, p. 812.) so for brevity’s sake, I won’t explore it. (I encounter verbal harassment almost every
day when I am in public.) It will also
examine self-violence by transgender people: suicide. I will then show how one can lead to the
other. I selected these articles from
the literature due to what they contained, but read them not just for content,
but also examining the content for whiteness and intersectionality. I want to make sure my work does not use
whiteness as a baseline, and that Trans of color are fairly represented.
I
write this paper from my perspective as a Caucasian transgender woman of
European heritage. I acknowledge that
while I endure the struggles that almost all Trans people face in the United
States, my struggles pale in comparison to those who face the intersectionality
of racism, transphobia, and necropolitics.
I write this paper as part of my search to understand the total Trans experience,
not just what I and those I know encounter.
As this paper is part of my search, I will include some anecdotes and
thoughts from my journey.
Physical
Violence
Trans people are frequently victims of violence, “because
of their gender non-conformity.”
(Stotzer, 2009, p. 170.) Violence
takes many forms, but Stotzer (2009) wrote that verbal harassment, physical
violence (including murder), and sexual violence are the most common. (p.171.)
“Numerous studies have
demonstrated that transgender people experience high levels of violence from
strangers and known others alike, and that they often face a lifetime of
repeated victimization.” (Stotzer, 2009,
p.171.) None of this is news to Trans people,
as we live it. We always check our
surrounding to make sure we are safe, and, among the group of Trans people I
know, especially in Philadelphia, we never go anywhere alone at night.
I
searched for sources of statistics of transgender violence. I found many different sources, and while
their actual numbers may vary, they all agree that Trans people experience
higher rates of violence than cis people. (Dinno, 2017, p. 1441.) I read many
papers on the topic, yet only one separated reports by race. All others lumped all Trans people together
for statistical purposes. That one
report, Dinno (2017.), found that:
“Transfeminine
residents aged 15 to 34 years who were Black or Latina were almost certainly more
likely to be murdered than were their cisfeminine comparators. Indeed, as Table
1 shows, a large majority of transgender homicide risk is borne by young Black
and Latina transfeminine individuals. Because the rate of cismasculine murders among
Black and Latino US residents aged 15 to 34 years is so high, the possibility that
transfeminine Black or Latina residents aged 15 to 34 years have even higher
rates of being murdered is alarming." (p. 1446.)
Table
1 (Dinno, 2017, p. 1442.)
Stotzer
(2009) mentioned Trans of color in his statistics of the typical Trans murder
victim.
“They
found that most [murder] victims were people of color (91%), most victims were
poor and lived in major cities, most were biologically male but had some variant
of a feminine presentation (92%), few murders received media coverage, all the
assailants were male and used extreme levels of violence, and most of the
murders were not investigated as hate crimes (71%), and most assailants go
free. Only 46% had been solved, compared to 69% of other murders (Wilchins
& Taylor, 2006).” (p.176.)
That’s
a lot to unpack. I tried to find the
report she cited, but was unsuccessful.
The statistics note that 91% people of color and that only 46% of the
murders are solved. Is there a
correlation between race and cases not being solved? I searched, and found an article about
Chester, PA. Maxon, J., Wright, K., & Rios,
E. (2015) wrote “while Chester has one of the nation’s highest homicide rates,
it has a far lower than average “clearance rate.” Not even one-third of last
year’s 30 homicides have been solved, a rate less than half the national
average.” (p.1.) The rate that murder
victims of color have their killers caught is below the national average
according to several studies. (Taylor, T. J., Holleran, D., & Topalli, V.,2009,
p. 561.)( Riedel, M., 2008, p. 1145.)( Petersen, N., 2017, p. 372.)
The intersectionality of race and transgender means that
those who murder transgender people have a good chance of never being arrested
for the crime. As necropolitics asserts,
their deaths serve as statistics and nothing more. However, many crimes are never reported as
being crimes against transgender people.
Stotzer
(2009) wrote transgender people are rarely
mentioned as victims because there is no place to list gender identity on a
standard police form. (p. 176.)
I have the police report concerning the suicide of one of my
dearest friends, who, while transfeminine, died in male clothing. The police report has no space for gender
identity, even if her gender identity was known to the police on the scene.
(Price, J., 2013, p.1.) Her autopsy
report also didn’t mention that she was transgender, despite the toxicology report
noting estrogen in the bloodstream. Also
the autopsy also noted that her toenails were painted pink and that she had
“previously augmented breasts.” (State of Maryland, 2013, p.1.) (This was in
error and was later amended, as they were a natural result of the estrogen, not
surgery.) Her life ended tragically, and
the authorities didn’t have the capability of noting her transgender status,
even after her widow informed them.
In
addition to the issues with police reporting being unwilling to officially
recognize transgender crime victims, one of the problems of studying
transgender violence is that it often goes unreported. At the many transgender conferences I’ve
attended, one of the topics often discussed informally is the need to “police
ourselves” because of the perception that calling the police will lead to
further discrimination. Many of my
friends reported that the police discriminated against them in several
ways. The research confirms this
problem. Stotzer (2017) wrote that 7.7%
of Trans people surveys were unjustly arrested, 37% of the perpetrators of
verbal abuse were police, 14% of physical assaults were by law enforcement
personnel, (p. 176.) and that 4.9% of sexual assaults were by police. (p.
173.) I couldn’t find statistics that
separated those reports by race.
Trans
people in the US experience discrimination from the police, but nothing compared
to Latin American countries, where 80% of Trans women experienced gender-based
violence. (Lanham,
M., Ridgeway, K., Dayton, R., Castillo, B. M., Brennan, C., Davis, D. A.,&
Cooke, J., 2019, p. 37.) I wondered if
that number correlated with the experiences of Trans of Color here in the US,
but I found no research either way.
With
issues like those it’s not surprising that Trans people don’t trust the
police. Most Trans people know we have
to protect ourselves for that reason.
Getting a dog and buying a gun are the two most common strategies.
(Jauk, 2013, p.818.) Not everyone can
afford those though. I carry pepper
spray and an assortment of knives when I’m out in public (but not on
campus.) A self-defense course for women
recommended that I make sure my bag has heavy items in it so that it may also
be swung as a weapon, and I have done that.
I also have martial arts training. Due to hyper masculinization prior to
transition, many transfeminine people have military experience as well. In my circles, I don’t know any transwomen
who aren’t armed in some way while out in public. Despite all of that, am I still afraid? Sometimes.
56% of transgender people report feeling in public, and 43% reported
that they felt uncomfortable in public as well.
(Stotzer, 2017, p.174.) Again, I
found no statistical breakout by race for those numbers.
More
academics began studying the violence endured by Trans people after the turn of
the 21st century. Hill and
Willoughby developed a Genderism and Transphobia Scale (GTS). (Hill & Willoughby, 2005, p. 540.) They say that three key constructs can be
used to conceptualize hate against trans persons: transphobia, genderism, and
gender-bashing.” (p. 533.) Hill and
Willoughby (2005) provide the following definition of these terms.
“Transphobia is an emotional disgust toward individuals who
do not conform to society’s gender expectations…. Genderism is an ideology that
reinforces the negative evaluation of gender non-conformity or an incongruence
between sex and gender… Finally, gender-bashing refers to the assault and/or
harassment of persons who do not conform to gender norms (Wilchins,1997). Thus,
genderism is the broad negative cultural ideology, transphobia is the emotional
disgust and fear, and gender-bashing is the fear manifest in acts of violence (Hill,
2002).” (pp. 533-4.)
Their
terms make sense, and the GTS is quite thorough: it has 32 different
indicators. Nagoshi, J. L., Adams, K.
A., Terrell, H. K., Hill, E. D., Brzuzy, S., & Nagoshi, C. T. (2008)
developed a different scale with only nine. (p.521.)
The
Nagoshim et al.(2008) scale was developed on a college campus, and they made
interesting assertions. They said that
even college environments aren’t free from LGBT hate (Nagoshim et al., 2008,
p.522.) Their scale concentrated on the
nine issues that Kate Bornstein considered important, citing her 2004 book Gender Outlaw as well as her 2008 work My Gender Workbook. Another important set of findings were that
lower education, right wing beliefs, and religious fundamentalism tended to
discriminate more against LGB in general and Trans in particular. (Nagoshim et al., 2008, p.524.) Another important note: in developing their
scale, Nagoshim et al. had a very low incidence of non-white respondents.
All
of these methods and charts help predict violence against transgender people,
but don’t address one of the most important factors: socioeconomic status. Jauk (2013) quoted Mara Keisling (NCTE) when
she wrote “Low social class exacerbates the problem of trans violence because
transgender individuals with more resources can choose to live in safer
neighborhoods and can afford facial surgeries for enhanced visual conformity.”
(p. 818.) As with many things in life,
those who have the money have an easier way through life. For transfeminine people, facial surgery can
be the difference between being targeted for violence or not.
Sexual
Violence
Trans
people also suffer a high rate of sexual violence. Stotzer (2009) notes that sexual violence is
the most documented form of violence against Trans people. She also wrote that “perpetrators are motivated
by hatred or negative attitudes toward transgender people.” (p.172.) Jauk (2013) states that 64% of Trans people report
being sexually assaulted. I am one of
them, as is my roommate. Neither of us
reported these assaults to the police, for the reason listed in the discussion
about law enforcement above.
Jauk
(2013) also wrote that “Transgender women face disadvantage because they choose
to be feminine in a world in which women and men devalue femininity.” (p.
816.) Julia Serano (2012) coined the
term Trans-misogyny, writing “Trans-misogyny is steeped in the assumption that
femaleness and femininity are inferior to, and exist primarily for the benefit
of, maleness and masculinity.” (p.1.) Of
note, Serano’s book Whipping Girl, from
which the cited essay was developed, has been criticized for its
whiteness. With men feeling negatively
about cis women and feeling hatred toward Trans women, that high rate of sexual
assault isn’t surprising.
In
my case, people assume that since I’m trans, I’m there for their
amusement. The first time I was sexually
assaulted was 2009 in a Philadelphia gay bar.
I was talking to two self-identified gay men about Star Trek when one of
them suddenly grabbed my breasts with both hands. As this occurred before I started HRT, I was
wearing breast forms, so I felt nothing.
I was stunned and didn’t react immediately. Fortunately, the bouncer saw what happened
and violently ejected both men. Through
the years, I’ve had several incidences of men grabbing my breasts to “see if
they’re real.” This must from their
belief that they can do whatever they please because I’m Trans, and that makes
me less than human.
I
understand where they learn this. I grew
up in the 1960s and 70s. In my very
small town, all the boys were taught that they were superior to women in every
way, and that women were “only good for two things, and one is raising
kids.” Since I started doing Transgender
focused talks at colleges and businesses in 2014, I’ve mentioned this, and
asked if that’s still how boys are raised.
Unfortunately, I’ve heard many times that this is still the case. I know that for myself and many trans women I’ve
spoken with, this led to internalized transphobia, which made “coming out” to
ourselves even harder. The
intersectionality of seeing women as less than human as well as thinking
transgender people are not human makes a powerful combination for hate. I found no research adding the
intersectionality of race to this except for a piece covered in class: Eli´as Cosenza
Krell’s Is Transmisogyny Killing Trans
Women of Color? Black Trans Feminisms and the Exigencies of White Femininity
(2017.).
Self-violence
What
effect do the high levels of violence have on Trans people? According to research, it leads to
self-harm. I found many studies making
that connection. I’ve had my own issues
with suicidal ideation, including attempts.
For that reason, I approached this section with some apprehension.
Testa,
R. J., Michaels, M. S., Bliss, W., Rogers, M. L., Balsam, K. F., & Joiner,
T. (2017) wrote that:
“Research on suicidality
among transgender and gender nonconforming (TGNC) people has revealed
alarmingly high rates of suicidal ideation (SI) and suicide attempts, with
45%–77% of study respondents reporting a history of SI… and 28%–52% reporting a
history of one or more suicide attempts…
strikingly
higher than the estimated lifetime prevalence of SI and suicide attempts in the
general population of 13.5% and 4.6%, respectively” (p. 125.)
Testa
studied the subject for many years with different combinations of researchers,
and published several papers on the subject.
(Testa, R. J., Sciacca, L. M., Wang, F.,
Hendricks, M. L., Goldblum, P., Bradford, J., & Bongar, B., 2012, p. 452.) One
of the theories he discusses in depth is Joiner’s IPTS model. The
IPTS model has three parts: “thwarted belongingness… perceived burdensomeness… and
the acquired capability for self-harm.” (Testa,
et al., 2017, p. 127.) I encountered
this model in a Newsweek magazine article back in 2013 while researching a
piece I was writing. Thwarted
belongingness is a feeling of being alone.
Perceived burdensomeness is a combination of self-hatred and feeling
like a burden on others. These two are
linked. The third factor is a lack of
fear toward dying. That third factor is
the ‘wild card’ in that it is the difference between SI and a suicide
attempt. (Testa, et al., 2017, p.
127.)
Using
my pen name, I wrote about Joiner’s theory in a piece about the dear friend’s
suicide I mentioned earlier. I’m
convinced that Joiner is correct.
“I
previously mentioned Joiner's theory on Suicide. And it fit Lisa to a
T. I have had those three things a few times in my life. And
survived. Right now, I strongly feel two of them. But there is one
that is NOT there. I Know I am not
alone. That knowledge keeps me from calling out to my Sister "Hey
Lisa! Wait up! Let's explore the Light together!" and following
her away.” (Lynne, 2013, n.p.)
Testa
and colleagues developed a Trans-centric model which they called the Gender
Minority Stress and Resilience (GMSR) model, which is adaptation of Meyer’s
Minority Stress Model. (Testa, R. J., Habarth,
J., Peta, J., Balsam, K., & Bockting, W., 2015, p.65.)
(Testa, et al., 2015, p. 67.)
Distal
stress factors are external to the person, while Proximal stress factors are
internal. The distal factors lead to the
proximal factors, which can lead to SI.
However, there are the resilience factors: Community and Pride. In the model, these can counteract the
negative stress factors. Being connected
to the Trans community and having pride in their identity are crucial to
surviving the negative experiences that affect Trans people daily. (Testa, et
al., 2015, pp. 66-7.)
The
Community aspect of the model relates back to Meyer’s model. This is significant.
“Meyer
pointed out that not all of the effects of minority stress are negative.
Members of minority groups typically develop coping and resilience in response
to prejudice and other insults. In particular, by coalescing around a minority
identity, minority members avail themselves of “important resources such as
group solidarity and cohesiveness that protect minority members from the
adverse mental health effects of minority stress” (p. 677). One way that
minority members accomplish this is by creating a within-group identity against
which they may then compare themselves, rather than using those whose prejudice
they face as their comparison group. In this process, minority members begin to
“evaluate themselves in comparison with others who are like them rather than
with members of the dominant culture” (p. 677). This reappraisal allows members
access to validation that might not otherwise be available to them. As a group,
minority members create a positive view of themselves that effectively
counteracts stigma.” (Hendricks, M. L., & Testa, R. J., 2012, p. 462.)
This
applies to all minority groups, including Trans and Trans of color. I know in my case, the Trans community is who
kept me alive when I was at the greatest risk of suicide. I began not caring about what society at
large thought; I just wanted to be a positive force in my community. I stopped comparing my appearance to
cisgender women, as I could never compete with them. Applying my experience as transgender, I hope
that the Trans of color community, who face worse violence than me, find
strength within their shared community.
Testa
and colleagues mentioned the racial composition of their study group in each
piece, and in each piece, they are overwhelmingly white. I wonder if they used more Trans of Color if
the results would be different. While
the model seems universal, the higher prevalence of violence against Trans of
Color may change some of the variables they used.
Testa
et al (2017) then compared the GMSR and IPTS models to possibly integrate those
factors to explain SI in Trans people.
(Testa, et al., 2017, p. 125.)
For this, their study had 816 respondents, 86% of whom were white. They made an effort toward
representation. “In addition, specific
e-mails and postings were distributed recruiting “Trans People of Color” on
applicable listervs, social media sites, and through professional networks of
study collaborators.” (Testa, et al., 2017, p. 128.)
(Testa, et al., 2017, p. 129.)
When
integrated, the model looked quite different.
The major absence I noticed was the lack of positive mitigating factors
from the GMSR model. I assume that these
are accounted for by the IPTS model’s third factor: lack of fear toward dying,
which while also not represented on the integrated model, is the mitigating
factor in that model.
(Testa, et al., 2017, p. 129.)
However,
their research also found “Although no significant differences were found in
current SI based on race or living environment, SI did vary based on age,
socioeconomic status, and gender identity.” (Testa, et al., 2017, p. 133.)
Conclusion
In researching Trans related violence; I hoped that
whiteness wouldn’t be as prevalent as it was.
The research showed that Transpeople of Color experienced far higher
incidences of violence than white Trans people, yet all the research used white
as the baseline. Burnes, T. R., Dexter,
M. M., Richmond, K., Singh, A. A., & Cherrington, A. (2016) listed multiple
possible stress factors.
“For
individuals who engage in both social and medical transition at various points
throughout the life span, there may be multiple, intersecting traumatic
experiences that can serve as stressors. Such stressors include childhood
sexual and physical abuse …familial neglect and social rejection… discrimination
in health care, educational, and employment settings…barriers in legal policies…housing
discrimination…and high rates of hate crimes…” (p.75.)
They
mention all of those intersecting factors, but neglect racism, the
intersectionality of which is a major factor in the lives of Trans of
color. This reinforces the concept of
necropolitics, which before this class I’d never encountered.
The
extraction of value from Trans of color lives through biopolitical and
necropolitics technologies not only serves the sovereign, but also indexes much
more subtle and complex shifts in power.
Trans rights activists' participation in and complicity with this
process is what compels us to make this intervention. (Riley, S. C., Jin, H., Aren, A., & Susan, S., 2013, p. 71.)
The researchers I cited in this paper have the best of
intentions. They’re documenting violence
in Trans lives, and applying that data to search for solutions to the problems
Trans people face. However, by using
whiteness as their standard community, they ignore the people who suffer a far
greater proportion of the violence: Trans of color. Ignoring Trans of Color reinforces that they
are more valuable as statistics to bolster agendas, as well as to generate
outrage which only helps the white Trans community.
Reflecting on this class in general, and the research I
completed for the papers assigned, I’ve had to re-evaluate my own thoughts and
prejudices. I examined my white
privilege more deeply than I ever have.
I
knew that Trans of Color were disproportionately murdered, and I’d read that
was probably because more Trans of Color had to resort to sex work to survive
due to the intersectionality of transphobia, misogyny, and racism. Sex work put them in harm’s way, thus
contributing to the higher murder rate.
It was a vicious cycle, which I would combat by trying to break the
transphobia portion by activism and education.
Yay me. Yes, in my ignorance, I was buying into the whole “white savior”
trope, even if I didn’t realize it.
That’s
the difference: now I realize it. I see
the whiteness in the research, and understand the necropolitics involved in the
lives and deaths of Transpeople in general, and Trans of color in
particular. However, seeing whiteness
and understanding necropolitics isn’t enough.
I will be conducting my own research, and using what’s left of my life
to work toward Trans rights. I must
apply the knowledge I’ve gained of these concepts to ensure that my research
truly represents all Trans people, and that I remember that all these numbers
and statistics represent the lives of people like me, some of whom have a much
worse situation than mine.
One
person will not end transphobia, racism, or hate in general. It’s a process. Just as those Trans people who came before me
made my journey possible, so my work should make the journeys of those Trans
people after me easier. Only by keeping
in mind what I’ve learned can I ensure my life and work have an effect on more
than people like me.
It’s
a dream I have.
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